- \n
- Option 1 \u2013 Conventional RCC columns:
<\/strong>Reinforced concrete columns using C35\/45 concrete and embedded steel reinforcement, representing standard practice for elevated water tanks.<\/li>\n\n\n\n- Option 2 \u2013 Steel staging:
<\/strong>Structural steel columns (S355), characterized by lower initial CO\u2082 emissions but higher maintenance requirements due to corrosion protection needs.<\/li>\n\n\n\n- Option 3 \u2013 RCC columns with CFRP retrofit:
<\/strong>Reinforced concrete columns strengthened at mid-life using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) to extend serviceability and reduce major repair needs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n![\"\"](\"http:\/\/141.23.68.248\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/image-126.png\")
<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\nLife-Cycle Assessment Results and Preferred Option<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The life-cycle assessment was conducted for a 50-year service life, using a cradle-to-gate material inventory combined with scheduled maintenance and rehabilitation interventions. The results show that the environmental performance of the staging system is governed by a trade-off between production-phase impacts and maintenance-driven impacts over the operational phase.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/141.23.68.248\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/image-627-1024x613.png\")
<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\nFigure-1 Energy Consumption, CO2, NOX and SO2 emissions of different design options<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Steel staging (Option 2) exhibits comparatively low total CO\u2082 emissions in the applied inventory due to lower concrete use; however, frequent recoating, inspections, and anticipated partial replacements increase maintenance-related impacts and reduce long-term robustness. Conventional RCC columns (Option 1) show higher production-phase CO\u2082 emissions dominated by cement production, but benefit from longer maintenance intervals and stable long-term performance. The RCC + CFRP retrofit option (Option 3) has the highest primary energy demand due to the energy-intensive production of CFRP materials, yet it significantly reduces repair intensity after mid-life and improves durability under aggressive exposure conditions [3], [4].<\/p>\n\n\n
\n![\"\"](\"http:\/\/141.23.68.248\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/image-125.png\")
<\/a><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\nFigure 5 AHP Ranking for different design options<\/p>\n\n\n\n
When aggregated using a multi-criteria decision-making framework (Analytic Hierarchy Process), Option 3 achieves the highest overall score (0.425), marginally outperforming conventional RCC (0.400) and clearly outperforming steel staging (0.175). This ranking reflects the weighting of CO\u2082 emissions and long-term reliability as dominant decision criteria and highlights the benefit of planned mid-life strengthening in extending service life and reducing cumulative intervention impacts [5].<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Accordingly, Option 3 (RCC columns with CFRP retrofit)<\/strong> is selected as the preferred design alternative, and only its constituent materials and interventions are included in the final life-cycle inventory for the integrated system analysis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
References<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
[1] ISO, ISO 14040: Environmental management \u2013 Life cycle assessment \u2013 Principles and framework<\/em>. International Organization for Standardization, 2006.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[2] International Federation for Structural Concrete (fib), fib Model Code 2010 \u2013 Final draft<\/em>. Lausanne, Switzerland, 2010.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[3] World Steel Association, Life Cycle Inventory Data for Steel Products<\/em>. Brussels, Belgium, 2020.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[4] fib, Bulletin on FRP Reinforcement and Strengthening of Concrete Structures<\/em>. fib Bulletin, Lausanne, Switzerland.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
[5] T. L. Saaty and L. G. Vargas, Models, Methods, Concepts & Applications of the Analytic Hierarchy Process<\/em>, 2nd ed. New York: Springer, 2012.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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- Option 2 \u2013 Steel staging: